Episode 414: Two Marvelous Frogs

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Thanks to Eilee and Alexis for their suggestions this week, two amazing frogs!

Further reading:

Paradoxical frog: The giant tadpole that turns into a little frog

Fungus is wiping out frogs. These tiny saunas could save them.

How to build a frog sauna

The paradoxical frog [photo by Mauricio Rivera Correa – http://calphotos.berkeley.edu, CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6703905]:

The Vietnamese mossy frog [photo by H. Zell – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=81804225]:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

Let’s start 2025 off right with an episode about frogs! Thanks to Alexis and Eilee for their suggestions.

Let’s start with Eilee’s suggestion, the paradoxical frog. The paradoxical frog is a type of tree frog that lives in South America. Like other frogs, it likes ponds and shallow lakes. Some individuals are green and some are brown, and a frog may have darker stripes or splotches, or might just be plain. The tadpoles eat algae and other tiny food, while the adults eat insects.

As with most frogs, the paradoxical frog hatches into a larval stage called a tadpole or pollywog, which is fully aquatic. It later metamorphoses into its adult form as a frog. Most tadpoles start out very small and grow larger, then metamorphose into a juvenile frog which then grows to fully adult size. But while the paradoxical frog’s tadpole starts out small, it can grow to as much as 11 inches long, or 28 centimeters! It’s the largest tadpole in the world as far as we know.

So how big is the adult frog if the tadpole is so enormous? About 3 inches long, or 7.5 cm, from snout to vent. That’s why it’s called the paradoxical frog, because a paradox is something that seems contradictory to expectations. Instead of the ordinary way of things, where a small tadpole grows into a bigger frog, in this case a big tadpole grows into a smaller frog. It’s sometimes called the shrinking frog.

One interesting detail is that not all of the tadpoles are that big. If a female lays her eggs in a small body of water that’s likely to dry up, or that doesn’t have a lot of food available, or if there are a lot of predators in the water, the tadpole metamorphoses quickly and doesn’t grow very big. But if the tadpole is in a better location it matures much more slowly, which allows it to reach much larger size before metamorphosing.

I should also mention that the 11-inch-long tadpole that is the largest ever measured was actually raised in captivity. In the wild, the largest paradoxical frog tadpole ever measured was 6 ½ inches long, or almost 17 cm. That’s still really big, but not that ridiculously big. But the confusing thing is that the tadpole is big and bulky, up to four times the size of the adult frog. Where does all that mass go after it transforms?

Early scientists who learned about the paradoxical frog wondered the same thing. They were so confused that they suggested that the frog actually came first and later metamorphosed into the tadpole, which then metamorphosed into a fish. But the main reason the tadpole is so long is its tail. When it metamorphoses into a frog, it absorbs the tail and therefore appears to shrink. The bulkiness of the tadpole’s body matches the bulkiness of the frog’s body. And unlike most frogs, which metamorphose into juvenile frogs that still have some growing to do, the paradoxical frog metamorphoses into a completely adult frog. It’s as big as it will ever get and fully mature, ready to mate and lay eggs.

Next, Alexis wanted to learn about the Vietnamese mossy frog. It lives in parts of Vietnam, Laos, and other nearby areas. It prefers mountainous rainforests and the female often chooses to lay her eggs in a tree hollow or even a rock cavity where water has collected. Instead of laying her eggs in the actual water, though, she lays them on rocks or branches above the water. The eggs don’t dry out because of the high humidity in rainforests, and when they hatch, the tadpoles fall into the water.

The tadpoles take a long time to mature, anywhere from four to eight months depending on how warm it is while they’re developing. They grow quite large, although not anywhere near the size of the paradoxical frog tadpole.

A big female Vietnamese mossy frog can grow up to 3 ½ inches long, snout to vent, or 9 cm, and is chubby and round. It’s nocturnal and spends the day hiding on mossy rocks or among plants in the water, then comes out at night to hunt insects like crickets as well as other small animals like worms.

The reason it’s called the mossy frog is because it looks for all the world as though this frog is covered in moss, or maybe is just made out of moss. It’s green and brown in color and its skin is covered in little bumpy structures called tubercules. This helps it blend in incredibly well in the rainforest, where moss is pretty much everywhere. If it feels threatened and it can’t jump into the water to hide, it will play dead.

This is what a Vietnamese mossy frog sounds like:

[frog beeping]

As we’ve talked about in other frog episodes, frogs throughout the world are declining in numbers because of a fungus that infects their skin. The effects of this fungus are worse in cold weather, so a team of scientists speculated that helping the frogs stay warm might help them stay healthier in winter and even help them recover from the infection. They tested their hypothesis by offering infected frogs a variety of temperatures in their enclosure. The frogs could pick where they wanted to spend their time. The frogs liked the warm areas but didn’t spend all their time in them, but they all recovered from the infection. Frogs who were given an overall warm environment also recovered, but not as fast. Frogs who had an ordinary enclosure without warmer areas remained infected with the fungus. Even better, frogs who had recovered from infection with the warm environment also showed resistance to later infections.

The team worked to develop plans that allow people to easily build what they call frog saunas. They don’t require electricity or fuel, just sunshine. When the saunas are placed near ponds or other areas with frogs, the frogs find them quickly and use them. There’s a link in the show notes if you want to learn how to make a frog sauna for your own back yard.

You can find Strange Animals Podcast at strangeanimalspodcast.blubrry.net. That’s blueberry without any E’s. If you have questions, comments, or suggestions for future episodes, email us at strangeanimalspodcast@gmail.com. We also have a Patreon at patreon.com/strangeanimalspodcast if you’d like to support us for as little as one dollar a month and get monthly bonus episodes.

Thanks for listening!

Episode 413: The Great American Interchange

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Thanks to Pranav for suggesting this week’s massive topic!

Further reading:

When did the Isthmus of Panama form between North and South America?

Florida fossil porcupine solves a prickly dilemma 10-million years in the making

Evidence for butchery of giant armadillo-like mammals in Argentina 21,000 years ago

Glyptodonts were big armored mammals:

The porcupine, our big pointy friend:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

This week, at long last, we’re going to learn about the great American interchange, also called the great American biotic interchange. Pranav suggested this topic ages ago, and I’ve been wanting to cover it ever since but never have gotten around to it until now. While this episode finishes off 2024 for us, it’s the start of a new series I have planned for 2025, where every so often we’ll learn about the animals of a particular place, either a modern country or a particular time in history for a whole continent.

These days, North and South America are linked by a narrow landmass generally referred to as Central America. At its narrowest point, Central America is only about 51 miles wide, or 82 km. That’s where the Panama Canal was built so that ships could get from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific and vice versa without having to go all around South America.

It wasn’t all that long ago, geologically speaking, that North and South America were completely separated, and they had been separated for millions of years. South America was part of the supercontinent Gondwana, while North America was part of the supercontinent Laurasia.

We’ve talked about continental drift before, which basically means that the land we know and love on the earth today moves very, very slowly over the years. The earth’s crust, whether it’s underwater or above water, is separated into what are called continental plates, or tectonic plates. You can think of them as gigantic pieces of a broken slab of rock, all of the pieces resting on a big pile of really dense jelly. The jelly in this case is molten rock that’s moving because of its own heat and the rotation of the earth and lots of other forces. Sometimes two pieces of the slab meet and crunch together, which forms mountains as the land is forced upward, while sometimes two pieces tear apart, which forms deep rift lakes and eventually oceans. All this movement happens incredibly slowly from a human’s point of view–like, your fingernails grow faster than most continental plates move. But even if a plate only moves 5 millimeters a year, after a million years it’s traveled 5 kilometers.

Anyway, the supercontinent Gondwana was made up of plates that are now South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and a few others. You can see how the east coast of South America fits up against the west coast of Africa like two puzzle pieces. Gondwana actually formed around 800 million years ago, then became part of the even bigger supercontinent Pangaea, and when Pangaea broke apart around 200 million years ago, Gondwana and Laurasia were completely separate. North America was part of Laurasia. But Gondwana continued to break apart. Africa and Australia traveled far away from South America as molten lava filled the rift areas and helped push the plates apart, forming the South Atlantic Ocean. Antarctica settled onto the south pole and India traveled past Africa until it crashed into Eurasia. By about 30 million years ago, South America was a gigantic island.

It’s easy to think that all this happened just like taking puzzle pieces apart, but it was an incredibly long, complicated process that we don’t fully understand. To explain just how complicated it is, let’s talk for a moment about marsupials.

Marsupials are mammals that are born very early and finish developing outside of the mother’s womb, usually in a special pouch. Kangaroos, wallabies, koalas, wombats, and Tasmanian devils are all marsupials, and all from Australia. But marsupials didn’t originate in Australia and are still present in other parts of the world.

The oldest known marsupial appears in North America about 65 million years ago, which was part of the other supercontinent on Earth at the same time as Gondwana, called Laurasia. About the time marsupials were spreading out across Laurasia, from North America all the way to China, Laurasia and Gondwana were connected for a while along the northern edge of South America. Animals were able to cross from Laurasia to Gondwana before the two supercontinents split apart again. Marsupials spread from Laurasia and across Gondwana before the continent of Australia separated about 50 million years ago. Marsupials did so well in Australia that researchers think that before Australia was fully separated from Gondwana, marsupials actually started spreading back out of Australia and into Gondwana again.

While marsupials were doing extremely well in Australia, in South America, birds were the dominant vertebrate for a long time. We talked about terror birds in episode 202. Phorusrhacidae is the name for a family of flightless birds that lived from about 62 million years ago to a little under 2 million years ago. They were carnivores and various species ranged in size from about 3 feet tall to 10 feet tall, or 1 to 3 meters, and had long, strong legs that made them fast runners. The terror bird also had a long, strong neck, a sharp hooked beak, and sharp talons on its toes.

Other birds in North America were likewise huge, but could fly. Those were the teratorns, which are related to modern New World vultures. Since they had huge wingspans and could fly long distances easily, they could just fly between North and South America if they wanted to, so teratorns were found on both continents starting around 25 million years ago. They only went extinct around 10,000 years ago. The largest species known, Argentavis magnificens, lived in South America around six million years ago. It’s estimated to have a wingspan of at least 20 feet, or 6 meters, and possibly as much as 26 feet, or 8 meters. That’s the size of a small aircraft.

In addition to giant predator birds, South America had crocodilians that could grow over 30 feet long, or 9 meters, and possibly as much as 40 feet long, or 12 meters. And, of course, it had ancestral forms of animals we’re familiar with today, like sloths, anteaters, armadillos, opossums, monkeys, capybaras, and lots more. Some of these were incredibly large too, like the giant ground sloth that was as big as an African elephant and the glyptodon that was related to modern armadillos. Glyptodon had a huge bony carapace and rings of bony plates on the end of its thick tail that made it into a club-like weapon, and it was the size of a car. Both the giant ground sloths and the glyptodonts were plant-eaters, as were the notoungulates.

The notoungulates are an extinct order of hoofed animals that lived throughout South America. They were probably most closely related to rhinoceroses, horses, and other odd-toed ungulates, but they’re completely extinct with no living descendants. Some were tiny and actually looked and probably acted more like rabbits than horses, while others were massive. We talked about trigodon in episode 387, and it and many of its close relations in the family Toxodontidae were the size and build of a modern rhinoceros. Trigodon even had a small horn on its forehead. A closely related group, Litopterna, is also a completely extinct order of ungulates, which were mostly smaller and more deer-like than the notoungulates.

The Pleistocene is also called the ice age, but it’s more accurate to say that it was a series of ice ages with long periods of warmer weather in between–tens of thousands of years of warmer climate, then a colder cycle that lasted tens of thousands more years. When the glaciers were at their maximum, with ice sheets covering some parts of the world over a mile thick, or a kilometer and a half, sea levels were considerably lower because so much of the world’s water was frozen solid. That exposed more land that would ordinarily be partially or completely underwater, and it also led to a dryer climate overall. At the same time, volcanic activity in the ocean separating what is now North and South America had been building up volcanic islands for millions of years. All these factors and more combined to form the Isthmus of Panama, also called Central America, that is basically a land bridge connecting the two continents.

This started around 5 million years ago and the isthmus was fully formed by about 3 million years ago, or at least that’s the most accepted theory right now. A 2016 study suggested that the land bridge started forming far earlier than that, possibly as early as 23 million years ago, possibly 6 to 15 million years. Studies are ongoing to learn more about the timeline.

What we do know is that once the land bridge opened up, animals started migrating into this new area. Animals from North America migrated south, and animals from South America migrated north. It didn’t happen all at once, of course. It was a slow process as various animal populations expanded into Central America over generations. Some animals had trouble with the climate or couldn’t find the right foods, while others did really well and expanded rapidly.

The ancestors of some animals that made it to North America and are still around include the Virginia opossum, the armadillo, and the porcupine. Meanwhile, the ancestors of llamas, horses, tapirs, deer, canids, felids, coatis, and bears traveled to South America and are still there, along with many smaller animals like rodents. Many other animals migrated, survived for a while, but later went extinct. This included a type of elephant called the gomphothere and saber-toothed cats that migrated south, while ground sloths, terror birds, glyptodonts, capybaras, and even a type of notoungulate migrated north.

You may notice that more animals that migrated south survived into modern times. South America was much warmer overall than North America, and most animals that traveled north had trouble adapting to a colder climate and competing with animals that were already well-adapted to the cold. Animals traveling south encountered warmer climates early, and if they were able to tolerate hot weather they didn’t have to worry about any climactic shocks on the rest of their journey south. As a result, North American animals were able to establish themselves in larger numbers, which helped them adapt even faster since more babies were being born and surviving.

One South America to North America success story is the porcupine. Porcupines are rodents, and there are two groups, referred to as old world and new world porcupines. Those are not great terms but that’s what we have right now. The old world porcupines are found in parts of Africa, Asia, and Italy, although they were once more widespread in Europe, while new world porcupines are found in parts of North and South America. Old world porcupines live exclusively on the ground and are larger overall than new world ones, which spend a lot of time in trees. Surprisingly, the two groups are only distantly related. They evolved spines separately. They’re also only very distantly related to hedgehogs.

The one thing everyone knows about the porcupine is that it has quills, long sharp spines that make hedgehog spines look positively modest. Porcupine quills are dangerous. They’re modified hairs, and actual hair grows in between the quills, but they’re covered in strong keratin plates and are extremely sharp. They also come out easily and regrow all the time. A porcupine can hold its spines down flat so it won’t hurt another porcupine, which is what they do when they mate.

Only one species of porcupine lives in North America, called the North American porcupine. It lives throughout much of the northern and western part of the continent, from way up in the far north of Canada down to central Mexico, although it doesn’t live in most of the southeast. We don’t know if the North American porcupine developed after South American porcupines migrated north, or if it developed much earlier, around 10 million years ago. Porcupine experts have been arguing about this for years, because there aren’t very many porcupine fossils to study.

Then a nearly complete fossil porcupine was discovered in Florida. It was such a big deal that the scientific team that discovered it decided to create an entire college course for paleontology students to help study the specimen. The resulting study was published in May of 2024, and the results suggest that the North American porcupine evolved a lot longer ago than the Isthmus of Panama formed.

The North American porcupine had to change a lot to withstand the intense cold when its ancestors were tropical animals. The North American porcupine is very different from its South American cousins. It spends less time in trees and doesn’t have a prehensile tail, it eats a lot of bark instead of mostly leaves, and it has thick insulating fur between its quills. The fossilized specimen discovered in Florida still had a prehensile tail and didn’t have the strong jaw it needed to gnaw bark off trees, but it already showed a lot of adaptations that are seen in the North American porcupine but not in South American species.

Ultimately, of course, a lot of large animals went extinct around 12,000 to 10,000 years ago, the end of the Pleistocene. Animals like mammoths that were well-adapted to cold died out as the climate warmed, and so did their predators, like dire wolves and the American lion. The notoungulates and other megaherbivores in South America went extinct too.

One animal that I haven’t mentioned yet that migrated south successfully was Homo sapiens. Maybe you’ve heard of them. Until very recently, the accepted time frame for humans migrating into South America was about 16,000 years ago, although not everyone agreed. But in July of 2024, a new study pushed that date back to 21,000 years ago.

The study examined glyptodont fossils found in what is now Argentina. The fossils were found on the banks of a river and were determined to show butchering marks from stone tools. The bones were dated to almost 21,000 years ago, which means that humans probably moved into South America a lot earlier than that. It takes time to travel from Central America down to Argentina.

One detail most people don’t know about when it comes to the Great American Interchange is how marine animals were affected. It was exactly opposite for them. Instead of a new land to explore, which caused very different animals to encounter each other for the first time, the Isthmus of Panama cut populations of marine animals from each other. They’ve been evolving separately ever since. So I guess whether a land bridge is bad or good depends on your point of view.

You can find Strange Animals Podcast at strangeanimalspodcast.blubrry.net. That’s blueberry without any E’s. If you have questions, comments, or suggestions for future episodes, email us at strangeanimalspodcast@gmail.com. We also have a Patreon at patreon.com/strangeanimalspodcast if you’d like to support us for as little as one dollar a month and get monthly bonus episodes.

Thanks for listening!

Episode 412: Whales and Dolphins

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Thanks to Elizabeth, Alexandra, Kimberly, Ezra, Eilee, Leon, and Simon for their suggestions this week!

Further reading:

New population of blue whales discovered in the western Indian Ocean

An Endangered Dolphin Finds an Unlikely Savior–Fisherfolk

The humpback whale:

The gigantic blue whale:

The tiny vaquita:

The Indus river dolphin:

The false killer whale:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

This week we’re going to have a big episode about various dolphins and whales! We’ve had lots of requests for these animals lately, so let’s talk about a bunch of them. Thanks to Elizabeth, Alexandra, Kimberly, Ezra, Eilee, Leon, and Simon for their suggestions.

We’ll start with a quick overview about dolphins, porpoises, and whales, which are called cetaceans. All cetaceans alive today are carnivorous, meaning they eat other animals instead of plants. This includes the big baleen whales that filter feed, even though the animals they eat are tiny. Cetaceans are mammals that are fully aquatic, meaning they spend their entire lives in the water, and they have adaptations to life in the water that are simply astounding.

All cetaceans alive today belong to either the baleen whale group, which filter feed, or the toothed whale group, which includes dolphins and porpoises. The two groups started evolving separately about 34 million years ago and are actually very different. Toothed whales are the ones that echolocate, while baleen whales are the ones that have extremely loud, often beautiful songs that they use to communicate with each other over long distances. It’s possible that baleen whales also use a limited type of echolocation to navigate, but we don’t know for sure. There’s still a lot we don’t know about cetaceans.

Now let’s talk about some specific whales. Ezra wanted to learn more about humpback and blue whales, so we’ll start with those. Both are baleen whales, specifically rorquals. Rorquals are long, slender whales with throat pleats that allow them to expand their mouths when they gulp water in. After the whale fills its mouth with water, it closes its jaws, pushing its enormous tongue up, and forces all that water out through the baleen. Any tiny animals like krill, copepods, small squid, small fish, and so on, get trapped in the baleen. It can then swallow all that food and open its mouth to do it again. The humpback mostly eats tiny crustaceans called krill, and little fish.

The humpback grows up to 56 feet long, or 17 meters, with females being a little larger than males on average. It’s mostly black in color, with mottled white or gray markings underneath and on its flippers. Its flippers are long and narrow, which allows it to make sharp turns.

The humpback is closely related to the blue whale, which is the largest animal ever known to have lived. It can grow up to 98 feet long, or 30 meters, and it’s probable that individuals can grow even longer. It can weigh around 200 tons, and by comparison a really big male African elephant can weigh as much as 7 tons. Estimates of the weight of various of the largest sauropod dinosaurs, the largest land animal ever known to have lived, is only about 80 tons. So the blue whale is extremely large.

The blue whale only eats krill and lots of it. To give you an example of how much water it can engulf in its enormous mouth in order to get enough krill to keep its massive body going, this is how the blue whale feeds. When it finds an area with a lot of krill floating around, it swims fast toward the krill and opens its giant mouth extremely wide. When its mouth is completely full, its weight—body and water together—has more than doubled. Its mouth can hold up to 220 tons of water. Since the whale is in the water, it doesn’t feel the weight of the water in its mouth.

Blue whales live throughout the world’s oceans, but a few years ago scientists analyzing recordings of whale song from the western Indian Ocean noticed a song they didn’t recognize. It was definitely a blue whale song, but one that had never been documented before. Not long after, one of the same scientists was helping analyze humpback whale recordings off the coast of Oman and recognized the same unusual blue whale song.

After the finding was announced, other scientists checked their recordings from the Indian Ocean and a few realized they had the mystery blue whale song too. The recordings come from a population of blue whales that hadn’t been documented before, and which may belong to a new subspecies of blue whale.

Elizabeth, Alexandra, and Leon all wanted to learn about dolphins. Kimberly also specifically wanted to learn about the Indus River dolphin and Leon about the vaquita porpoise. Dolphins and porpoises are considered toothed whales, but they’re also relatively small and can swim very fast. Orcas are actually dolphins even though they’re often called killer whales.

Even a small cetacean is really big, but the exception is the vaquita. It’s the smallest cetacean alive today, not even five feet long, or 1.5 meters. It lives only in the upper Gulf of California and is gray above and white underneath, with black patches on its face.

The vaquita spends very little time at the surface of the water, so it’s hard to spot and not a lot is known about it. It mostly lives in shallow water and it especially likes lagoons with murky water, since that’s where it can find lots of the small animals it eats, including small fish, squid, and crustaceans.

The vaquita is critically endangered, mostly because it often gets trapped in illegal gillnets and drowns.  There may be as few as ten individuals left alive. Attempts at keeping the vaquita in captivity have failed, but it’s strictly protected by both the United States and Mexico. Some scientists worry that even though vaquita females are still having healthy calves, there are so few of the animals left that they might not recover and are functionally extinct. But only time will tell, so the best thing everyone can do is what we’re already doing, keeping the vaquita and its habitat as safe as possible.

Another small cetacean is the Indus River dolphin, which grows up to 8 and a half feet long, or 2.6 meters. As you can probably guess from its name, it actually lives in fresh water instead of the ocean, specifically in rivers in Pakistan and India. It’s pinkish-brown in color and has a long rostrum, or beak-like nose, which turns up slightly at the end and is filled with sharp teeth that it uses to catch fish and other small animals. Because the rivers where it lives are murky, the dolphin doesn’t have very good eyesight. It probably can’t see anything except light and dark with its tiny eyes, but it can sense its surroundings just fine with echolocation.

Like most cetaceans, the Indus River dolphin is endangered, but it’s doing a lot better these days than it was just a few decades ago. In the 1970s only about 150 of the little dolphins were left alive, and by 2001 there were a little over 600. Today there are around 2,000. Habitat loss, pollution, and accidental drowning in fishing nets are still ongoing problems, but these days the fishing families that live along the river are helping it whenever they can. The fishers rescue dolphins who get stranded in shallow water and irrigation canals, and the government encourages this by paying the fishers a small amount for their help. Since this part of the country is very poor, a little bit of extra money can mean a big difference for the families, and of course their help means a lot to the dolphins too.

One interesting thing is that the Indus River dolphin often swims on its side. That is, it just tips over sideways and swims around as though that’s the most normal thing in the world. Scientists think this helps it navigate shallow water. And the Indus River dolphin isn’t very closely related to other dolphins and whales.

Quite a while ago now, Simon brought the false killer whale to my attention. In 1846 a British paleontologist published a book about British fossils, and one of the entries was a description of a dolphin. The description was based on a partially fossilized skull discovered three years before and dated to 126,000 years ago. It was referred to as the false killer whale because its skull resembled that of a modern orca. Scientists thought it was the ancestor of the orca and that it was extinct.

Or maybe not, because in 1861, a dead but very recently alive one washed up on the coast of Denmark.

The false killer whale is dark gray and grows up to 20 feet long, or 6 meters. It mostly eats squid and fish, including sharks. It’s not that closely related to the orca and actually looks more like a pilot whale. It will sometimes hang out with dolphins, including occasionally hybridizing with bottlenose dolphins, but then again sometimes it will eat dolphins. Watch out, dolphins.

Finally, Eilee wanted to learn about little-known whales, and that definitely means beaked whales. There are 24 known species of beaked whale, but there may still be species unknown to science. We know very little about most of the known species, because they live in remote parts of the ocean. They prefer deep water and are extremely deep divers, with the Cuvier’s beaked whale recorded as diving as deep as 1.8 miles, or almost 3 km, and staying underwater without a breath for 222 minutes. That’s approximately 220 minutes longer than a human can hold their breath.

Let’s finish with Sato’s beaked whale, which was only described in 2019. It’s black with a chunky body and small flippers and dorsal fin. It also has a short beak. It lives in the north Pacific Ocean and was thought to be a darker population of Baird’s beaked whale, which is gray, but genetic studies and a careful examination of dead beached individuals proved that it was a completely different species. It grows up to 23 feet long, or 7 meters, but since no female specimens have ever been found, we don’t know if the female is larger or smaller than the male.

We basically know nothing about this whale except that it exists, and the fact that it is alive and swimming around in the ocean right now, along with other whales, is an amazing, wonderful thing.

You can find Strange Animals Podcast at strangeanimalspodcast.blubrry.net. That’s blueberry without any E’s. If you have questions, comments, or suggestions for future episodes, email us at strangeanimalspodcast@gmail.com. We also have a Patreon at patreon.com/strangeanimalspodcast if you’d like to support us for as little as one dollar a month and get monthly bonus episodes.

Thanks for listening!

Episode 411: Lionfish and Sea Squirrel

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Thanks to David and Jayson for their suggestions this week!

Further reading:

Unveiling the lionfish invasion in the Mediterranean Sea

DeepCCZ: The Weird and Wonderful Megafauna of the Abyssal CCZ

The red lionfish is beautiful but does not look like a lion [photo by Alexander Vasenin – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25523559]:

The sea squirrel is yellow above and red underneath (pictures from article linked above):

Under side of a gummy squirrel photographed on shipboard showing its bright red feeding palps (flower-like structure) and underbelly.

Gummy squirrel (“Psychropotes longicauda”) at 5100 m depth on abyssal sediments in the western CCZ. This animal is ~60 cm long (including tail), with red feeding palps (or “lips”) visibly extended from its anterior end (right).

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

This week we’re going to learn about two interesting marine animals suggested by Jayson and David.

Let’s start with David’s suggestion, the lionfish. The lionfish doesn’t actually look like a lion although it is a fish. It lives in shallow tropical water in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific, especially around coral reefs.

There are twelve species of lionfish known, but they’re mostly fairly similar. The lionfish is brown or dark red in color with white stripes, fan-like fins, and lots of long spines, all of which are striped black and white or red and white to make them more visible. When a fish or other animal has markings that make it stand out against the background, you can be pretty sure that it’s dangerous, and that’s the case for the lionfish.

The lionfish’s spines are venomous, especially the spines on the dorsal fin. If it feels threatened, it will point the dorsal fin at the predator and keep it pointed at it no matter which direction the predator moves. If the predator swims below the lionfish, the lionfish will turn upside-down in the water to keep the dorsal fin pointed at it. Most predators back off at that point, and I don’t blame them because that sounds really scary.

People have died from lionfish venom, but it’s rare. Mostly it’s just extremely painful and makes the person feel really sick for a day or two. Divers have to be careful when they’re around lionfish, because lionfish can be aggressive and will point that dorsal fin at the diver as a warning. You don’t want a lionfish to point at you.

The lionfish eats smaller fish, including smaller lionfish, invertebrates, and other small animals. It confuses other fish by blowing water at them. The little fish turns to face into what it thinks is a weird water current, and suddenly, there’s a lionfish that just gulps it down.

As David points out, even though the lionfish is dangerous, it’s definitely beautiful. Some people keep lionfish in saltwater aquariums, although they’re hard to care for in captivity, and unfortunately sometimes the fish escape into the wild or are released. The red lionfish is especially invasive in the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf Coast, and off the southeastern coast of the United States. Lionfish have also been introduced to parts of the Mediterranean Sea, where they’re becoming more and more invasive.

Because invasive lionfish eat so many native fish, and because it’s spreading rapidly and becoming extremely common, people have been trying to find ways to reduce the invasive population. It turns out that lionfish are good to eat if you’re careful when handling the spines during cleaning, so people in areas where it’s invasive are encouraged to catch lionfish to eat. Invasive lionfish are even served in fancy restaurants. Since the red lionfish can grow around 18 inches long, or 47 cm, there’s lot a of meat on one.

No one’s sure why it’s called a lionfish. It doesn’t look remotely like a lion. It’s also called the zebrafish because of its stripes.

Next, Jayson wants to learn about the sea squirrel. Despite its name, it is not a squirrel, although it does live in the sea. It’s a type of sea cucumber that lives mostly in the Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific, but it’s also a deep-sea animal so you’re not likely to see it on your next trip to the beach. It’s yellow on top and red underneath, with 18 red feeding palps. These palps look like little flower petals surrounding its mouth, which is underneath the body. Its body is flattened on the bottom like a slug’s, but it has tiny tube feet that it uses to move around slowly.

None of this sounds like a squirrel, but that’s because I forgot to mention the rear appendage, which sticks up and back and is shaped sort of like a squirrel tail. Since the sea squirrel’s body is long and slender, it does resemble a squirrel in shape very slightly.

The sea squirrel is actually quite large. If you count the “tail,” it can measure almost 3 feet long, or 80 cm. It lives on the sea floor, where it eats whatever tiny food it can find that has sunk down from above.

The deep ocean floor mostly doesn’t have strong currents, and scientists think that’s why the sea squirrel has a tail. It’s not actually a tail, it’s a sail—or at least, that’s what we think it is. Larval sea squirrels have an appendage that almost definitely acts as a sail, allowing it to travel to new parts of the ocean without needing to swim. In adults, the tail may catch any small currents in the water, which may move the animal a short distance away. Since the sea squirrel doesn’t walk very quickly and can’t swim at all, and it finds all its food underfoot, getting moved to a new part of the sea floor where it hasn’t already eaten everything is beneficial.

Sometimes people call the sea squirrel the gummy squirrel because it kind of looks like a big piece of gummy candy, but it’s probably not a good idea to eat it. For one thing, scientists think its body may contain toxins, since its bright yellowy-green color may act as a warning to potential predators. Since nothing has been found that eats the sea squirrel, the warning must be working.

You can find Strange Animals Podcast at strangeanimalspodcast.blubrry.net. That’s blueberry without any E’s. If you have questions, comments, or suggestions for future episodes, email us at strangeanimalspodcast@gmail.com. We also have a Patreon at patreon.com/strangeanimalspodcast if you’d like to support us for as little as one dollar a month and get monthly bonus episodes.

Thanks for listening!

Episode 410: Electric Catfish

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Thanks to Cosmo for suggesting this week’s animal, the electric catfish!

Further reading:

The shocking truth about electric fish

Efficient high-voltage protection in the electric catfish

Gimme kiss [electric catfish photo from this site]:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

This week we’re finally going to talk about a fish Cosmo wanted us to learn about, the electric catfish!

Catfish are really common fish that live throughout the world, except for Antarctica. We’ve talked about various types of catfish in lots of different episodes, since there are well over 3,000 known species and they’re incredibly diverse. The electric catfish lives in freshwater in tropical areas in western and central Africa, as far north as the Nile River.

All animals generate electric fields in their nerves and the contracting of muscles. Animals that can sense these fields are called electroreceptive. An electroreceptive animal can find hidden prey without using its other senses.

Many electroreceptive animals can also generate weak electrical fields, usually less than a single volt—small electrical pulses or a sort of wave, depending on the species, that can give them information about their environment. Like a dolphin using echolocation, a fish using electro-location can sense where potential prey is, where predators, plants, and rocks are, and can even communicate with other fish of its same species. Of course, those same electric pulses can also attract electroreceptive predators.

Some fish can generate an electric shock so strong it can stun or kill other animals. The most famous is the electric eel, which we talked about way back in episode 10, but the electric catfish falls in this category too.

The electric catfish isn’t a single species but several in the family Malapteruridae. Some are very small, but one grows as much as four feet long, or 1.2 meters, and can weigh over 50 lbs, or 23 kg. That’s Malapterurus electricus, THE electric catfish.

The electric catfish is grayish-brown mottled with black spots. Like a lot of catfish, it’s a cylinder-shaped chonk, and has three pairs of barbels around its broad mouth. Barbels are the feelers that give the catfish its name, because they look sort of like a cat’s whiskers. Sort of. Not actually very much like a cat’s whiskers. The electric catfish also has what look like surprisingly kissy lips, which are often pale in color so they stand out, especially when the mouth is open, which is frankly hilarious. It doesn’t have a dorsal fin and it’s not a fast swimmer. It spends most of its time lurking in rocky areas in muddy, slow-moving water. It’s also nocturnal.

The electric catfish eats other fish, although it will also eat pretty much anything it can swallow. It likes muddy water because it doesn’t want potential prey to see it, and of course it doesn’t want any potential predators to see it either. That includes humans, who consider it a delicacy. Humans also sometimes keep electric catfish as aquarium fish, which is sort of the opposite of being killed and eaten.

Contracting a muscle causes a tiny, tiny electrical impulse, as I mentioned earlier, but in electric fish certain muscles have developed the ability to generate much stronger electrical impulses. Instead of muscles, they’re called electric organs. The interesting thing is that this is only found in fish, but that the ability evolved separately at least six times in different lineages of fish.

The electric catfish uses its ability to generate electric shocks as a defense when it needs to, but mainly it uses it to stun or outright kill other fish, which it then gulps down. It can discharge up to 300 volts of electricity in pulses that last only a few milliseconds, but since it can generate up to 500 pulses in waves, that’s a lot of electricity. That’s not enough to kill a person, but you’d definitely feel it and try to get away.

But, you may ask, how does the electric catfish not shock itself? Water is a really good conductor of electricity, which is one reason why this ability is only found in fish. A study published in 2022 asked that question too. The scientists used a high speed digital camera to observe captive electric catfish, and got them to discharge electricity by tickling them with a paintbrush. This allowed the scientists to see if the catfish was actually affected by its electricity at all, because the main outward sign of electrocution is involuntary muscle contractions. They determined that no, the catfish didn’t show any sign of being shocked. They also weren’t shocked when the scientists were the ones generating electricity in the tank. The conclusion is that the electric catfish is shielded by a layer of fat and other tissues that resist electric shocks, which are especially dense around the animal’s heart and nervous system.

Arthritis in humans is sometimes alleviated by the application of mild electric shocks, carefully administered by doctors, but in ancient times before electricity, people figured out that handling some fish helped arthritis. Since electric fish are pretty common in different parts of the world, different cultures figured this out at different times. The ancient Greeks would put an electric ray on the arthritic body part, for instance, while the ancient Egyptians used the electric catfish. The ancient Egyptians depicted the electric catfish in carvings and paintings that are over 5,000 years old. I have arthritis in my thumbs but I don’t think I want to touch an electric catfish with my thumbs.

You can find Strange Animals Podcast at strangeanimalspodcast.blubrry.net. That’s blueberry without any E’s. If you have questions, comments, or suggestions for future episodes, email us at strangeanimalspodcast@gmail.com. We also have a Patreon at patreon.com/strangeanimalspodcast if you’d like to support us for as little as one dollar a month and get monthly bonus episodes.

Thanks for listening!

Episode 409: Guinea Pigs and Capybaras

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Thanks to Mary, Mila, and Riley for their suggestions this week!

Further reading:

Comfortable and dermatological effects of hot spring bathing provide demonstrative insight into improvement in the rough skin of Capybaras

Comfort of capybaras determined by SCIENCE:

An especially attractive guinea pig:

Guinea pigs come in lots of colors, patterns, and fur types [picture taken from this excellent site]:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

This week we’re going to learn about two rodents, one small and one big. Thanks to Mary and Mila who both suggested the guinea pig, and thanks to Riley who suggested the capybara.

This episode is a bit unusual because part of it comes from a Patreon episode from 2023. Like, literally a big chunk of this episode is the original audio from that one, and you’ll be able to tell the difference in audio and know just how lazy I was this week. The episode actually came together in an unusual way too. Riley’s parent emailed me last week with some new suggestions, including capybaras, but wasn’t sure if we had already covered the topic. I thought we had, but of course there’s always more to learn about an animal. Well, since this is the beginning of a new month I was on the Patreon page to upload the December episode, and while I was there I did a quick search for capybaras and discovered the episode I was thinking of. I decided to add some more information about guinea pigs to it since I already mention guinea pigs a lot in that episode, and here is the result!

The capybara is a rodent, and a very big one. It is, in fact, the biggest rodent alive today. To figure out just how big the capybara is, picture a guinea pig. The guinea pig is also a rodent, native to the Andes Mountains in South America. No one’s sure why the guinea pig is called that in English, since it doesn’t come from Guinea and doesn’t have anything to do with anything else called guinea, but as someone who had two pet guinea pigs when I was a kid, I know exactly why they’re called guinea pigs. This is what an actual pig sounds like:

[pig squealing]

And this is what a guinea pig sounds like:

[guinea pig squealing]

Also, it’s sort of shaped like a pig. The guinea pig is a chonky little animal with short legs, only a little stub of a tail, and little round ears. Its face is sort of blocky in shape and it has a big rounded rump, similar to that of a capybara. The guinea pig is actually closely related to the capybara, and is a pretty good-sized rodent in its own right. It grows about 10 inches long, or 25 cm, on average, and roughly half that size tall.

The guinea pig has been domesticated for at least 7000 years, but it wasn’t domesticated for people to keep it as a pet. In South America and many other places now, it’s a very small farm animal raised for its meat. Guinea pig has been an important source of protein for all that time, so important that it was considered sacred in many cultures.

In the early 16th century when Europeans started arriving in South America, sailors took guinea pigs with them on ships so they’d have fresh meat on the voyage. But when the cute little animals arrived in Europe, people started buying them as pets.

Guinea pigs eat plants, mostly grass, and are social animals. If you want a pet guinea pig, make sure to get at least two. Like rabbits and some other animals, including the capybara, the guinea pig excretes special pellets that aren’t poop, but are semi-digested pellets of food. The guinea pig eats the pellets so they can pass through the digestive system again and the body can extract as many nutrients as possible from it. What’s left is then excreted as a regular poop pellet.

Even in places where the guinea pig is routinely kept as livestock and eaten, people breed guinea pigs as pets too. The pet variety is smaller than the meat variety and has different markings and different colors. Guinea pigs naturally have short, smooth hair and are usually reddish-brown in color, but different colors, fur length and texture, and white markings have been bred into different varieties. There are even mostly hairless varieties.

Most people these days are familiar with what a guinea pig looks like, but most people are not familiar with what a capybara looks like.

So, picture a guinea pig. Now, imagine it growing and growing and growing until it’s the size of a large dog. Instead of orange and white, or black and white, or any of the other colors and patterns of a pet guinea pig, imagine its fur as being a solid rusty-brown color. The capybara can grow almost 4.5 feet long, or 134 cm, and can stand up to two feet tall, or 62 cm. That is a big rodent!

The capybara lives throughout most of South America, although it doesn’t live in the Andes or in Patagonia. It’s semi-aquatic and spends a lot of time in the water, sometimes even sleeping in the water with just its nose poking up so it can breathe. It can hold its breath for up to five minutes, and of course it swims extremely well. It even has webbed toes. It eats a lot of water plants and also eats grass, fruit, and other plants and plant parts.

The capybara has some features that are typical of rodents, like its teeth. Rodent teeth grow continuously since they’re easily worn down by chewing, especially chewing tough plants like grass. It also has some features that are uncommon in rodents. For instance, it can’t synthesize vitamin C, a trait it shares with the guinea pig and with humans. If a capybara kept in captivity isn’t given fruit and other foods that contain vitamin C, eventually it will develop scurvy.

But the capybara doesn’t otherwise have any resemblance to a pirate. It’s a sociable animal and famously chill. In the wild it lives in groups that can number up to 100 individuals, although up to 20 is more common.

The capybara has a scent gland on its nose called a morillo. The female has a morillo but the male’s is bigger since he scent marks more often by rubbing the gland on plants, trees, rocks, other capybaras, and so on. During mating season, the female capybara attracts a male by whistling through her nose, because who doesn’t like a lady who can whistle through her nose? The capybara will only mate in water, so if a female decides she doesn’t like a male, she just gets out of the water and walks away from him.

The female usually gives birth to four or five babies in one litter. Females with babies, called pups, help care for the babies of their friends. Most often, the pups who are too young to wander around without someone to watch them carefully, stay in a group. One or two females remain close to the pups to watch them while the other mothers find food, and the babysitters trade out every so often. When a capybara pup gets hungry, if its mother isn’t nearby, another lactating female will allow the pup to drink some of her milk. This is rare in most animals, since producing milk takes a lot of energy and a mother animal naturally wants to expend her energy on her own babies. But it’s beneficial for the whole group for capybara pups to be cared for by all the mothers.

Capybaras are big enough that adults have a certain amount of protection from predators, but they do have to worry about animals like jaguars, caimans, and anacondas. Smaller predators like eagles will eat capybara pups if they can catch them. Fortunately the capybara can swim fast and run fast, and with everyone in its group watching out for danger, it’s a lot safer than it is by itself.

The capybara does well in captivity and is a popular animal in zoos, and in some zoos you might even be able to pet one. You’ve probably seen pictures of capybaras relaxing in what looks like a big outdoor tub with tangerines floating in it, or if you’re from Japan or just familiar with Japanese customs, relaxing in a yuzu bath. Hot springs baths, called onsen, are popular in Japan, and in winter when the days are short and chilly, adding a citrus fruit called yuzu to the bath is supposed to help prevent colds and help moisturize the skin. Some zoos in Japan now extend this custom to capybaras, because it’s adorable.

As an added bonus, it turns out that the yuzu bath is really good for the capybara. The capybara is a warm-weather animal, and winters in Japan can be very cold and dry. As a result, the capybara’s skin becomes dry too. Soaking in natural hot springs, with or without yuzu, restores the capybara’s skin to its normal condition, which is a lot more comfortable for the capybara and helps it stay healthy. We know this is the case because of a study published in December 2021 in the journal Nature.

Before we go, here’s one last interesting fact about the guinea pig, to bring us back to the beginning of this episode. The guinea pig is a fully domesticated animal and its wild ancestor appears to have gone extinct. There are related species that resemble a guinea pig, but there are no wild guinea pigs in the world today.

You can find Strange Animals Podcast at strangeanimalspodcast.blubrry.net. That’s blueberry without any E’s. If you have questions, comments, or suggestions for future episodes, email us at strangeanimalspodcast@gmail.com. We also have a Patreon at patreon.com/strangeanimalspodcast if you’d like to support us for as little as one dollar a month and get monthly bonus episodes.

Thanks for listening!

Episode 408: Dog-Like African Doggos

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Thanks to Lydia and “warblrwatchr” for this week’s suggestions!

Further reading:

Sweet tooth: Ethiopian wolves seen feeding on nectar

The African wild dog is not actually a dog and eats lots of things:

The aardwolf is not a dog at all and eats insects:

The Ethiopian wolf is not a dog (or a wolf or a fox) and eats rodents and nectar [photo by Adrien Lesaffre and taken from this page]:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

This week we’re going to talk about three dog-like animals from Africa, suggested by Lydia and “warblrwatchr,” even though none of the three animals are dogs.

We’ll start with one of Lydia’s suggestions, the African wild dog, also called the painted dog or painted wolf. Despite those names, it’s not very closely related to dogs and wolves. It’s the only species in its own genus, although it is a member of the family Canidae. Colonizers from Europe thought the animal was just a feral dog, not anything special that should be protected, and they also brought domestic dogs with them to Africa. Domestic dogs mean diseases that other canids can catch. Between introduced diseases, farmers killing the animals to keep them away from livestock, and habitat loss, the African wild dog is endangered. Luckily, these days conservation groups have been working to protect the animal, and its numbers are increasing slowly in Kenya’s national parks in particular.

The African wild dog is a tall, strong canid with great big ears and no dewclaws. It has a yellowish coat with black blotches and some white spots, including a white tail tip, although some subspecies have darker coats. Unlike most canids, its fur is bristly and doesn’t have a soft undercoat, and as the dog ages, it loses its fur until old dogs are nearly bald. It’s very social, as canids almost always are, and its varied coat pattern helps individuals recognize friends and pack-mates at a distance.

The African wild dog prefers savannas and other open areas. It hunts in packs and mostly preys on antelopes, although it will also kill zebras and other large animals, and individual dogs will sometimes catch small animals like hares and rodents.

The African wild dog pack isn’t especially hierarchical. The males of the pack are mainly led by the dominant male, while the females are mainly led by the oldest female, who is usually the most dominant. The dominant pair is usually the only pair that has babies. A mother dog has up to 16 pups at a time but only one litter a year.

In a lot of animals, as the babies grow up, the males are usually the ones who are driven out of the pack or leave on their own to find a new pack. In the African wild dog, females are the ones who leave as they grow up. Sometimes the females join a different pack and sometimes they start their own. Either way, it stops a pack from becoming inbred.

The African wild dog is extremely vocal, making lots of different sounds to communicate with its pack-mates. It sounds a lot more like a bird than a dog. This is what African wild dogs sound like:

[doggo sounds]

Next, Lydia and warblrwatchr wanted to learn about the aardwolf, which lives in eastern and southern Africa. Unlike the African wild dog, which is mostly active during the day, the aardwolf is nocturnal. It spends most of the day in a burrow, sometimes one it digs itself, but more often one that another animal dug and abandoned at some point.

The aardwolf has black stripes on a yellowish or reddish coat, a mane of long hair down its neck and back, large ears, and a bushy tail. It’s about the size of a big dog, about 20 inches tall at the shoulders, or 50 cm, but it looks like a small, slender hyena. That’s because it is actually a type of hyena, although it’s not closely related to other hyenas. Hyenas look dog-like but they aren’t canids at all. In fact, they’re more closely related to cats than to dogs, although that’s a very distant relationship.

The aardwolf has evolved to eat insects, mainly termites. It has a broad, sticky tongue, and while it does have teeth, unlike the anteaters we talked about a few weeks ago, they’re not very strong and are mostly used to fight other aardwolves. It’s mostly solitary except during mating season, when a pair will stay together until the female’s cubs are a few months old. The male will watch the cubs while the female goes out to find food.

The aardwolf mainly defends its territory by marking it with secretions from its anal glands, although males will fight during mating season and a mated pair will chase other aardwolves away when they have babies.

Not only does the aardwolf mainly eat termites, it mainly eats termites in one particular genus. It doesn’t dig into the termite mound but smells and hears the termites that are outside of the nest, which it licks up. Then it moves on to another termite mound and licks up all the termites it finds there. This makes it easier for the aardwolf to find food without expending a lot of energy, and it also doesn’t risk destroying the termite colonies in its territory. It can easily eat a quarter million termites every single night. It licks up a lot of sand along with the termites, naturally, but the sand actually helps grind up the insects in its stomach.

The aardwolf will also eat other insects when it can’t find enough of its preferred termites. Sometimes it will eat bird eggs, beetle larvae, and other small food. It doesn’t typically eat meat at all, even dead animals it comes across. It just eats any insects and larvae it finds on the carcass.

Finally, let’s finish with the Ethiopian wolf. It’s also called the red jackal or the Simien fox. It looks a lot like a long-legged fox, with a reddish coat with white markings, big pointed ears, and a long, sharp muzzle. Its long fluffy tail has a black tip. But it’s not a type of fox at all. It’s also not a jackal. Even though it lives in Africa, a genetic study has revealed that it’s actually more closely related to the gray wolf and coyote of North America than it is to any of the canids that live in Africa. Scientists think that the ancestor of the gray wolf migrated into northern Africa from Eurasia and its descendant is the Ethiopian wolf.

The Ethiopian wolf lives only in the mountains of Ethiopia and is critically endangered due to habitat loss, diseases spread by domestic dogs, and poaching. Less than 500 individuals are left in the wild. It lives in large family groups, with only the dominant female breeding. The rest of the pack helps care for the pups when they’re born. But the Ethiopian wolf doesn’t usually hunt in packs. Instead, it’s specialized to hunt rodents, and almost never eats anything except rodents.

Or that’s what we thought, until an article was published just a few days ago as this episode goes live in November 2024. But to learn about an unusual addition to the Ethiopian wolf’s diet, first we have to learn about a flower.

The flower is called the poker plant, torch lily, or red hot poker, because its flowers are orange and yellow and grow in a spike at the end of an upright stalk. The orange spike looks like a fireplace poker that’s been left in the fire long enough that the metal has begun to glow. Its genus is Kniphofia, and all species are native to Africa although people in other parts of the world grow them in gardens. The flowers produce lots of nectar and attract lots of bees and sunbirds.

But it’s not sunbirds or bees that the wolves have been observed eating. It’s the nectar itself, which the wolves lick off the flowers. This isn’t all that unusual, since lots of animals like the sweet taste of nectar. One of the scientists had seen the children of local shepherds lick the flowers for nectar, and she tried it too and said the nectar was delicious. She then saw the wolves lick the flowers, and after some study, it turns out that it’s very common behavior among the wolves. Older wolves teach pups how to do it, and the team observed some wolves visiting up to 30 different plants to lick nectar from the flowers.

The surprising thing, though, is what happens when a wolf licks the nectar. Pollen from the flowers gets all over the wolf’s muzzle, including on its whiskers. If you have a dog, you know that dogs have lots of little thin whiskers around their muzzle, and it’s the same for the Ethiopian wolf. As the scientists observed wolves visiting flower after flower, they realized that it’s probable that the wolves are helping pollinate the red hot poker flowers.

If this is the case, it’s the very first known large predator to act as a pollinator. Not only that, this is the first large predator found feeding regularly on nectar. Just like a giant meat-eating bee.

You can find Strange Animals Podcast at strangeanimalspodcast.blubrry.net. That’s blueberry without any E’s. If you have questions, comments, or suggestions for future episodes, email us at strangeanimalspodcast@gmail.com. We also have a Patreon at patreon.com/strangeanimalspodcast if you’d like to support us for as little as one dollar a month and get monthly bonus episodes.

Thanks for listening!

Episode 407: Cookie Cutter Shark

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Thanks to Alyx for this week’s suggestion, the cookie cutter shark!

Further reading:

If You Give a Shark a Cookie

The business end of the cookie cutter shark:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

This week we’re going to learn about a little shark suggested by Alyx, but first let’s learn about something else that might be related to the shark.

In the 1970s, the U.S. Navy started having trouble with the navigation of their submarines. The Ohio-class submarine had what was called a sonar dome that was filled with oil, and the oil helped transmit sound. But repeatedly the subs would lose navigation abilities, and investigations turned up strange chunks removed from the electric cables, the oil lines, the sound probes, and the sonar dome itself—anywhere made of rubber that was soft enough for what looked like a hole saw to damage.

The Navy thought they were dealing with a state-of-the-art weapon. The United States and the former Soviet Union were bitter enemies, so the Navy thought the USSR had invented a technologically sophisticated underwater stealth drone of some kind that could damage the subs and leave no trace—nothing but circular chunks removed from the sonar dome and its components.

Thirty submarines were damaged before the Navy figured out the cause. It wasn’t a super-secret weapon at all. It was just a little fish called the cookie-cutter shark.

The cookie cutter shark doesn’t look very scary. It only grows 22 inches long at most, or 56 cm, and is brown in color. It has lots of very sharp evenly spaced teeth on its lower jaw, but compared to a great white shark, it’s nothing to worry about. But somehow it was able to disable 30 of the world’s most advanced submarines at the time.

That’s because of how the cookie cutter shark eats, which is also how it gets its name. It picks a target fish or some other animal, such as a whale or a seal, or possibly the sonar dome of an Ohio-class submarine, and sneaks up to it. It’s just a little fish and its coloration helps it blend in with its surroundings, so most animals barely notice it. It has lips that act like a suction cup, so quick as a wink it sticks itself to the animal, bites down, and spins around. In moments it’s cut a circular chunk out of the animal’s side like a horrible cookie, which it swallows, and by the time the animal even realizes it’s hurt, the cookie cutter shark is long gone.

The shark used to be called the cigar shark because of its shape. It wasn’t until 1971 that experts realized how the cookie cutter shark eats. Until then the circular wounds on fish and whales and other animals were thought to be from lamprey bites or from some kind of parasite.

The cookie cutter shark does have teeth in its upper jaw but they’re much smaller than the lower teeth. When it sheds its lower teeth to replace them, instead of shedding just one tooth, it sheds them all at once. Like most sharks, it swallows its old teeth so it can reuse the calcium to grow new teeth.

The shark also has photophores on the underside of its body that glow greenish, which is a common way that some fish escape predators from below. A big fish looking up toward the surface of the water high above it sees a lot of light shining down from the sun, so a fish with a glowing underside just blends in. But in the case of the cookie cutter shark, it has a strip of skin on its underside without photophores, and from below that strip shows up. It’s a sort of collar that’s actually darker brown than the rest of the fish. It looks, in fact, like a tiny fish silhouetted against the surface. The would-be predator fish approaches, expecting an easy meal. Instead, the cookie cutter shark darts around and takes a big bite out of the fish, then takes off. It’s a remarkably fast swimmer, but most of the time it hangs almost motionless in the water waiting for another animal to approach. Its eyes are large and it has good vision.

Sometimes the cookie cutter shark will travel in schools, which attracts even more predators who think they’re looking at a bunch of little bitty fish. Then all the sharks get a bite.

That leads us to the uncomfortable question: has the cookie cutter shark ever bitten a piece out of a human? The answer is yes, but no one has ever died from a cookie cutter shark attack. The shark usually stays in deep water during the day and rises closer to the surface at night, so it’s not likely to encounter humans except at night. Occasionally a swimmer has been bitten, and shipwreck survivors have reported being bitten at night while waiting for rescue, which is just insult to injury. In 2023 a swimmer was bitten by two cookie cutter sharks, but he saw them and was able to just grab them both and throw them away before he was seriously hurt. That’s not something you can do with a great white.

As for the submarines, the Navy started putting fiberglass shields over the sonar dome and other softer parts of the sub, and that solved the problem. It only cost $2 billion each to repair the subs.

You can find Strange Animals Podcast at strangeanimalspodcast.blubrry.net. That’s blueberry without any E’s. If you have questions, comments, or suggestions for future episodes, email us at strangeanimalspodcast@gmail.com. We also have a Patreon at patreon.com/strangeanimalspodcast if you’d like to support us for as little as one dollar a month and get monthly bonus episodes.

Thanks for listening!

Episode 406: Some Turtles and a Friend

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Thanks to Riley and Dean, Elizabeth, and Leo for their suggestions this week!

Further reading:

Groundbreaking study reveals extensive leatherback turtle activity along U.S. coastline

A bearded dragon:

The tiny bog turtle:

The massive leatherback sea turtle:

The beautiful hawksbill turtle [photo by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

This week we’re going to learn about some reptiles suggested by four different listeners: Riley and Dean, Elizabeth, and Leo.

We’ll start with the brothers Riley and Dean. Dean wants to learn more about the bearded dragon, and that may have something to do with a certain pet bearded dragon named Kippley.

“Bearded dragon” is the name given to any of eight species of lizard in the genus Pogona, also referred to as beardies. They’re native to Australia and eat plants and small animals like worms and insects. They can grow about two feet long, or 60 cm, including the tail, but some species are half that length. Females are a little smaller than males on average.

The bearded dragon gets its name because its throat is covered with pointy scales that most of the time aren’t very noticeable, but if the lizard is upset or just wants to impress another bearded dragon, it will suck air into its lungs so that its skin tightens and the spiky scales under its throat and on the rest of its body stick out. They’re not very sharp but they look impressive. Since the bearded dragon can also change color to some degree the same way a chameleon can, when it inflates its throat to show off its beard, the beard will often darken in color to be more noticeable. Both males and females have this pointy “beard.”

Bearded dragons that are sold as pets these days are more varied and brighter in color than their wild counterparts, although wild beardies can be brown, reddish-brown, yellow, orange, and even white. Australia made it illegal to catch and sell bearded dragons as pets in the late 20th century, but there were already lots of them outside of Australia by then. Pet bearded dragons are mainly descended from lizards exported during the 1970s, which means they’re quite domesticated these days and make good pets.

Like some other reptiles and amphibians, the bearded dragon has a third eye in the middle of its forehead. If you have a pet beardie and are about to say, “no way, there is definitely not a third eye anywhere, I would have noticed,” the eye doesn’t look like an eye. It’s tiny and is basically just a photoreceptor that can sense light and dark. Technically it’s called a parietal eye and researchers think it helps with thermoregulation.

Next, Riley wants to learn about turtles, AKA turbles, and especially wants everyone to know the difference between a tortoise and a turtle. It turns out that while many turtles are just fine living on land, they’re often more adapted to life in the water. Turtles have a more streamlined shell and often flipper-like legs or webbed toes. Tortoises only live on land and as a result they have shells that are more dome-shaped, and they have large, strong legs that resemble those of a tiny elephant.

You can’t always go by an animal’s common name to determine if it’s a tortoise or a turtle, but it’s also not always clear whether an animal is a tortoise or a turtle at first glance. Take the eastern box turtle, for instance, which is common in the eastern United States. It has a domed carapace, or shell, but it’s still a turtle, not a tortoise. And, I’m happy to say, it can swim quite well. This is a relief to find out because when I was about six years old, my mom visited someone who had kids a little older than me. I didn’t know them but they were nice and showed me the swampy area near their house. At one point one of the older boys found a box turtle, took it over to a little bridge over a pond, and dropped it in the water. I screamed, and he was absolutely shocked. He said he thought box turtles belonged in the water and he was helping it, but I thought they couldn’t swim and he’d just killed the poor turtle. I have continued to think he’d killed the poor turtle until just now, when I learned they can swim, and I can’t even tell you how relieved I am. Anyway, eastern box turtles have a domed shell, yes, and stumpy club-like front legs, but their hind legs are less like elephant legs than regular turtle legs. Since box turtles can live to be 100 years old, it’s possible that that one is alive and well even now.

Riley also wants everyone to know not to take a turtle from the woods, which is a very good rule to live by. In fact, it’s important not to take any wild animals from the woods no matter how cute they are. To continue our example, eastern box turtles have small territories that they defend from other box turtles. If you take the turtle out of its territory even for just a few days, when you return it to the woods, another turtle may have already taken over and will chase it away. Turtles don’t travel very fast and are vulnerable to being hit by cars and eaten by lots of different predators, so without a safe territory where it can hide and find food, it can die very quickly.

One of the turtles Leo suggested we learn about was the bog turtle. It’s the smallest turtle in North America, with a carapace barely four inches long, or 10 cm. It lives in a few parts of the eastern United States, and likes marshy areas with slightly acidic water. It spends a lot of time in the water, but also plenty of time on land. It eats worms, slugs, snails, water plants, berries, insects, and even small frogs when it can catch them.

The bog turtle is so small that pretty much anything big enough to swallow it will eat it. Its main defense is to bury itself in soft mud and hide. It’s almost completely black or dark gray in color, but it does have a bright orange spot on each side of its neck.

The bog turtle is critically endangered due to habitat loss, pollution, and poaching for the illegal pet trade. Conservationists are working to improve its habitat, and in the meantime some zoos and aquariums are helping with a captive breeding program. Since a bog turtle isn’t old enough to lay eggs until it’s at least 8 years old, the species as a whole reproduces slowly.

Leo also suggested hawksbill and leatherback turtles, and Elizabeth wants to learn about sea turtles in general. We talked about sea turtles way back in episode 75, so it’s definitely time to revisit the topic.

Seven species of sea turtle are alive today, and you can tell they’re turtles and not tortoises because they have streamlined shells and flippers instead of feet. They migrate long distances to lay eggs, thousands of miles for some species and populations, and usually return to the same beach where they were hatched. Female sea turtles come ashore to lay their eggs in sand, but the males of most species never come ashore. The exception is the green sea turtle, which sometimes comes ashore just to bask in the sun. Once the babies hatch, they head to the sea and take off, swimming far past the continental shelf where there are fewer predators. They live around rafts of floating seaweed call sargassum, which protects them and attracts the tiny prey they eat.

Six of the extant sea turtles are relatively small. Not small compared to regular turtles, small compared to the seventh living sea turtle, the leatherback. It’s much bigger than the others and not very closely related to them. It can grow some nine feet long, or 3 meters, and instead of having a hard shell like other sea turtles, its carapace is covered with tough, leathery skin studded with tiny osteoderms. Seven raised ridges on the carapace run from head to tail and make the turtle more stable in the water, a good thing because leatherbacks migrate thousands of miles every year. Not only is the leatherback the biggest and heaviest turtle alive today by far, it’s the heaviest living reptile that isn’t a crocodile. It has huge front flippers, is much more streamlined even than other sea turtles, and has a number of adaptations to life in the open ocean.

The leatherback lives throughout the world, from warm tropical oceans up into the Arctic Circle. It mostly eats jellyfish, so it goes where the jellyfish go, which is everywhere. It also eats other soft-bodied animals like squid. To help it swallow slippery, soft food when it doesn’t have the crushing plates that other sea turtles have, the leatherback’s throat is full of backwards-pointing spines. What goes down will not come back up, which is great when the turtle swallows a jellyfish, not so great when it swallows a plastic bag. It’s endangered due to pollution, accidental drowning when it gets caught in fishing nets, and habitat loss of its nesting beaches.

The hawksbill, or hawkbill sea turtle grows to a much more reasonable size, around three feet long, or 90 cm, and mostly lives around tropical reefs. It has a more pointed, hooked beak than other sea turtles, sort of like a hawk, which gives it its name. You might think it eats fish with a beak like that, but it mostly eats jellyfish and sea sponges. It especially likes the sea sponges, some of which are lethally toxic to most other animals. It also doesn’t have a problem eating even extremely stingy jellies and jelly-like animals like the Portuguese man-o-war. The hawkbill’s head is armored so the stings don’t bother it, although it does close its eyes while it chomps down on jellies. Its meat can be toxic due to the toxins it ingests. People used to kill hawksbill sea turtles for their multicolored shells, but these days it’s a protected species like all sea turtles.

The hawksbill is also biofluorescent! Researchers only found this out by accident in 2015, when a team studying biofluorescent animals in the Solomon Islands saw and filmed a hawksbill glowing like a UFO with neon green and red light. So you never know what other secrets sea turtles might be hiding.

You can find Strange Animals Podcast at strangeanimalspodcast.blubrry.net. That’s blueberry without any E’s. If you have questions, comments, or suggestions for future episodes, email us at strangeanimalspodcast@gmail.com. We also have a Patreon at patreon.com/strangeanimalspodcast if you’d like to support us for as little as one dollar a month and get monthly bonus episodes.

Thanks for listening!

Episode 405: Anteaters and the Capelobo

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Thanks to Molly and Mila for suggesting the anteater and its relations this week!

Further reading:

How anteaters lost their teeth

The giant anteater has a long tongue and a little mouth, and adorable babies:

The giant anteater has a weird skull [photos by Museum of Veterinary Anatomy FMVZ USP CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=72183871]:

The tamandua is like a mini giant anteater that can climb trees:

The silky anteater looks like a weird teddy bear [photo by Quinten Questel – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30287945]:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

This week we’re going to talk about some unusual mammals, suggested by Molly and Mila. It’s a topic I’ve been meaning to cover for almost two years and now we’re finally going to learn about it! It’s the anteater and its close relations, including a creepy anteater cryptid that would have fit in just fine during monster month.

A lot of animals are called anteaters because they eat ants, but the anteaters we’re talking about today belong to the suborder Vermilingua, meaning “worm tongue.” That’s because they all have long, sticky tongues that they use to lick up ants, termites, and other insects. Anteaters are native to Central and South America and are closely related to sloths, and more distantly related to armadillos.

The sloth and anteater share a common ancestor who lived around 60 million years ago, a little animal that mainly ate worms and insect larvae and probably lived in burrows. Because its food was soft and didn’t need a lot of chewing, when a mutation cropped up that caused its teeth to be weak, it didn’t matter. It wasn’t using its teeth anyway. When the first anteaters evolved from this ancestral species, they didn’t need teeth either, and gradually they lost their teeth entirely. Modern anteaters have no teeth at all.

Sloths also evolved from this weak-toothed ancestor, and sloths eat plants. Plants need a lot of chewing, and most animals that eat plants have really strong teeth, but sloths retained the genetics for weak teeth. They don’t even have an enamel coating on their teeth, and instead of grinding molars, their teeth are basically soft little pegs. Luckily for the sloth, the little peg teeth do continue to grow throughout its life, so it never wears its teeth down so far it can’t chew.

Anteaters, sloths, and their distant relation the armadillo all share the same type of vision from their shared ancestor too. They can’t see colors at all but have good vision in low light, which is why scientists think they all evolved from an animal that spent most of its time underground hunting for worms. Anteaters have strong claws that allow them to dig into termite and ant nests, and armadillos spend a lot of time in burrows they dig. We don’t actually know what the common ancestor of these related animals looked like because we haven’t found any fossils of it yet.

In the past, scientists thought that pangolins and aardvarks were related to anteaters because they all have similar adaptations to a similar diet, but that’s just another example of convergent evolution. We talked about pangolins and aardvarks back in episode 65, as well as the giant anteater.

The giant anteater is the one most people know about. It earns the name giant because it can grow almost eight feet long, or 2 1/2 meters, if you include the tail. Its fur is brown and cream with a distinctive black stripe from its chest to its back that scientists used to think acted as camouflage. Because the black fur is outlined with white, making it stand out, scientists now think it’s used as a warning to potential predators, because the giant anteater can be dangerous. If it feels threatened, it will rear up on its hind legs, using its long tail as a prop, to slash at a predator. Its claws are so big that it knuckle-walks on its forepaws.

The female anteater has one baby at a time and while it’s small, it rides on her back. Its black stripe matches hers exactly so that potential predators don’t notice it. The giant anteater’s tail has especially long, thick fur, and it will wrap the tail over its head like a blanket in cold weather.

You know how a cartoon character can cram its head into a bottle and its head stays bottle-shaped? It kind of looks like the giant anteater did that. Its head is small and its snout is shaped like a tube, with nostrils and a tiny mouth at the end. It can’t open its jaws very far.

Anteaters eat ants, although they also love termites and will eat other small insects and insect larvae. The giant anteater uses its massive front claws to dig into anthills. Then it flicks its tongue really fast, catching insects with a combination of tiny hooklets on the tongue and sticky saliva. An anteater’s tongue is over two feet long, or 60 cm, so long that when the anteater isn’t actually eating, the tongue rolls up at the back of its skull. The base of its tongue is attached not to its throat but to its sternum, also called the breastbone.

A feeding anteater eats as many insects as it can catch in a minute or two, then moves on to find a new anthill. It does this to avoid as many stings and bites as possible. Because the anteater doesn’t have teeth, it crushes insects against the top of its mouth before swallowing them, and its stomach acts like a bird’s crop. The anteater may deliberately eat sand or grit the way birds do to help pulverize the insects it’s eaten. Its eyesight isn’t very good so it hunts mostly by scent.

To conserve energy, the anteater’s body temperature is low to start with and drops when the animal is asleep. This is another trait it shares with its relations, the sloth and the armadillo.

There are three other species of anteater alive today, the silky anteater, and the northern and southern tamanduas. The tamandua, both northern and southern, looks like a miniature giant anteater but is typically less than half its size. The southern tamandua lives throughout much of South America while the northern tamandua lives throughout Central America, and both species look very similar. They don’t have the black warning stripe that the giant anteater has, though, and because they’re smaller and lighter, they can climb trees to find insects, which allows them to live in the same areas as giant anteaters without competing with them for food. They eat ants, termites, and the larvae of lots of other insects, and will also eat fruit. The tamandua has a partially prehensile tail that helps it climb trees.

The silky anteater is also called the pygmy anteater, because it’s the smallest species, only growing about 18 inches long, or 45 cm. That includes its partially prehensile tail. It lives in Central America and much of northern South America, and unlike the giant anteater that prefers savannas and open forests, the silky anteater lives in lowland rainforests because it spends its life in trees.

The silky anteater also doesn’t look much like the giant anteater. It kind of looks like a weird teddy bear with a long tail, and kind of looks like a weird sloth with a long tail. Its fur is short but fluffy, light brown or cream-colored, and some scientists think this makes it look like the seed pod of the silk cotton tree that’s common throughout its range and which it prefers. It sleeps curled up in a ball that also helps it look more like a seed pod.

The silky anteater has two long, sharp claws on its front feet, which it uses to climb trees, break open wasp nests, and defend itself from predators. Its hind feet have four claws that aren’t as long. It eats lots of wasps and wasp larvae, but it also eats other insects and even fruit. It has a tiny head and a long snout, but its snout is nowhere near as long as the giant anteater’s, or even the tamandua’s.

You might not think of any of these anteaters as scary, and in fact the silky anteater is so cute I want to pet it even though that would be a bad idea, but they can definitely be dangerous. The giant anteater in particular can kill jaguars and has even killed humans who try to capture or hurt it. Maybe that’s why one of the forms of the cryptid called the capelobo is a hairy man with a giant anteater’s head and claws.

The capelobo is a legend from Brazil that’s sort of like a Brazilian werewolf. In its animal form it looks like a tapir but with a dog-like head, but it can transform into its humanoid form where it looks like a monstrous giant anteater. It’s supposed to scream in the woods like someone in danger, and when people come to help, it catches them and squeezes them to death. Then it drinks their blood and eats their brains like some sort of terrible anteater zombie-vampire, which is not a phrase I ever thought I’d utter.

One suggestion about the capelobo squeezing people to death is that this is a story to help children stay away from giant anteaters. Remember that they stand up on their hind legs with their arms outstretched when they’re ready to fight. To a little kid, that looks an awful lot like a person with their arms out for a big hug. Don’t hug the capelobo, and don’t hug the giant anteater either.

The capelobo’s body is supposed to be heavily armored or even made of stone, except for its belly button. That’s the only place where it’s vulnerable, so to kill the capelobo, someone has to shoot it right in the naval. That sounds really hard, especially if it’s chasing you. Fortunately, it’s not a real animal—although to be on the safe side, maybe don’t go wandering into the Brazilian forest at night.

You can find Strange Animals Podcast at strangeanimalspodcast.blubrry.net. That’s blueberry without any E’s. If you have questions, comments, or suggestions for future episodes, email us at strangeanimalspodcast@gmail.com. We also have a Patreon at patreon.com/strangeanimalspodcast if you’d like to support us for as little as one dollar a month and get monthly bonus episodes.

Thanks for listening!